---
aliases:
- Industrias Cardoen
- Industrias Cardoen S.A.
- Industrias Cardoen Limitada
- Cardoen Industries
- Industrias CARDOEN
- Cardoen Division Defensa
- Industrias Cardoen Division Defensa
- INCAR
category: Private Organization
created: 2024-04-25
location: Santiago, Chile
relations:
- fn: 2
  reverse: true
  role: owner of the company and co-defendant with it in United States v. Cardoen
  type: owned
  with: '[[Carlos Cardoen]]'
- fn: 12
  role: described by the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence as a subsidiary of
    Cardoen Industries
  type: owned
  with: '[[Swissco Management Group]]'
- end: 1988
  fn: 19
  role: cluster bombs sold to Iraq, as found by the Eleventh Circuit
  start: 1984
  type: contractor_to
  with: '[[Iraq]]'
summary: Chilean munitions company of Carlos Cardoen whose sales sheet in the Casolaro
  papers offers cluster bombs, mines and armored vehicles, and whose zirconium imports
  from Teledyne were the subject of a 1993 Miami indictment.
tags:
- Organization
- Private
- ArmsDealers
- Munitions
- ClusterBombs
- Iraq
- IraqGate
- Zirconium
- PROMIS
- CasolaroPapers
title: Industrias Cardoen
updated: 2026-10-08
---

[Industrias Cardoen](/organizations/industrias-cardoen/) is a Chilean manufacturer of munitions, mines, and armored vehicles owned by [Carlos Cardoen](/people/carlos-cardoen/). Its sales sheet dates its military manufacture to 1978, and the company was named in a twenty-one count indictment returned in [Miami](/places/miami/) on May 26, 1993, over zirconium and fuze components exported to [Chile](/places/chile/) for cluster bombs sold to [Iraq](/places/iraq/).[^1][^2]

### Product line and self-description

A bilingual sales sheet titled "Industrias CARDOEN, Division Defensa" is one of the items in the "Promotional Material" folder of [Danny Casolaro](/people/danny-casolaro/)'s papers. Its English text reads: "CARDOEN Industries initiated the manufacture of military products in 1978 as a contribution of private enterprise to the DEFENSE OF CHILE." The sheet adds that "the variety, high quality, and low prices of these products has created a growing international demand, and several export transactions have been successfully completed with ally countries."[^1]

The product list includes demolition charges, Bangalore torpedo charges, hand grenades, the M-18 and M-19 antipersonnel and antitank mines, a programmable anti-submarine charge, the PJ-1 manual aircraft bomb, a "Cluster type bomb" of 100 lb (50 kg) and one of 500 lb (250 kg), the MK-81, MK-82 and MK-83 "war bomb" series, remote-control blast systems, night-vision goggles, the VTP-1 and VTP-2 transport vehicles, and two MOWAG-CARDOEN Piraha armored vehicles in 4x4 and 6x6 versions. The sheet is marked by hand "BD|AI|PM-04."[^1]

### Miami arrest, 1983

Kenneth R. Timmerman wrote that on August 2, 1983, [U.S. Customs](/organizations/us-customs/) officers arrested Cardoen in Miami over night-vision goggles bound for Chile, and that the case ended in a plea bargain with a fine of 100,000 dollars on his company.[^3] Timmerman quoted Thomas L. Flannery, who investigated [James Guerin](/people/james-guerin/) for the Lancaster Intelligencer Journal, as saying that by the time fuzes for cluster bombs made by [International Signal and Control](/organizations/international-signal-and-control/) were shipped to Iraq in 1984, Guerin and Cardoen were old friends who had made a sweeping agreement "to split the world cluster bomb market in two," with Cardoen taking Latin America and "special" countries such as Iraq and Guerin the rest of the Gulf, Pakistan and South Africa.[^4] A declaration signed by Howard Teicher, a former [National Security Council](/organizations/national-security-council/) staff member, on January 31, 1995 dated the arrest to 1983 in Miami in a sting operation concerning the smuggling of night-vision goggles to Cuba and Libya and stated that the highest levels of the U.S. government, including the NSC staff and the [CIA](/organizations/central-intelligence-agency/), were well aware of it.[^5] In a corrective declaration of October 3, 1996 Teicher wrote that, although he understood Cardoen had been arrested, "the other information in this paragraph is incorrect."[^6]

### Iraqi sales and the Israeli approach

According to [Ari Ben-Menashe](/people/ari-ben-menashe/), whose book is the sole source for the passages so cited, Cardoen obtained a brokering license from [ARMSCOR](/organizations/armscor/), the South African state arms maker, after an application to SIBAT, the [Israeli](/places/israel/) foreign defense sales office, was refused in 1979. By 1985 Cardoen was selling arms to Iraq with the help of Armscor and of individuals connected to the CIA, among them [Alan Sanders](/people/alan-sanders/) of [ITICO](/organizations/itico/), who supplied cluster-bomb blueprints.[^7]

Ben-Menashe also wrote that in 1985 he approached Sanders to buy cluster bombs for Israel and was told that Cardoen would sell to anyone who paid. He wrote that in September 1988 he was sent to Chile to offer Cardoen a license to produce Uzis and Galil assault rifles in exchange for ending the Iraq trade, and that Cardoen introduced him to [Mark Thatcher](/people/mark-thatcher/) during the visit.[^7]

Alan Friedman described the same network in *Spider's Web*. In Friedman's account, Cardoen's Iquique plant turned out about a thousand cluster bombs a month, the first Iraq shipment worth 21 million dollars reached Iraq early in 1984, and Iraq took about three quarters of the company's arms exports of 100 million dollars a year. A former Cardoen agent for Iraq, Nasser Beydoun, later sued for 30 million dollars in commissions. Friedman quotes a Cardoen statement: "I'll have to build [Jimmy Carter](/people/jimmy-carter/) a statue," and a Cardoen associate, Robert Johnson, who said that he saw [Robert Gates](/people/robert-gates/) arrive at Cardoen's house near Miami in the summer of 1986. The White House said in July 1991: "The whole story is unfounded. There never were any sales, overt or covert, to Iraq or Iran through a third country. Mr. Gates never met with Carlos Cardoen."[^8]

Timmerman wrote that Beydoun offered [Saddam Hussein](/people/saddam-hussein/) the Chilean cluster bomb in March 1984 at about 7,100 dollars apiece, that Cardoen made eighteen deliveries to Iraq during the summer of 1984, and that the cluster bomb sales earned Cardoen a total of 467 million dollars.[^3]

### Matrix Churchill and the Congressional record, 1993

In January 1993 Representative [Henry B. Gonzalez](/people/henry-b-gonzalez/) had reprinted in the Congressional Record a press report on the British trial of three [Matrix Churchill](/organizations/matrix-churchill/) executives, which says the jury had heard testimony about a 1988 Matrix Churchill sale to Industries Cardoen, "a Chilean arms manufacturer believed to have acted as a conduit for Iraq's military buildup," and that an official in the department that issued export credit guarantees said the agency agreed to assist the Cardoen deal despite suspicions that the equipment might eventually be put to military use.[^9] In an earlier reprinted report, David Byars, a senior principal with the Export Credits Guarantee Department, agreed that the department had known that Industries Cardoen, "the Chilean intermediary in an earlier transaction, was an arms manufacturer."[^10]

In the same statement Gonzalez said that Rexon Corp., a New Jersey firm, was under criminal investigation for shipments of artillery fuse parts to Iraq, that the investigation involved Cardoen's activities in Iraq, and that Rexon refused to talk to the committee.[^11]

### Swissco Management Group and James D. Theberge

The [Senate Select Committee on Intelligence](/organizations/senate-select-committee-on-intelligence/), in its October 24, 1991 report on the nomination of Robert Gates as director of central intelligence, recorded that during its inquiry into alleged relationships between the nominee and Cardoen it received information about a relationship between Cardoen Industries and a former part-time senior CIA employee, which "may have constituted a conflict of interest and security concerns at worst, or an awkward appearance at best." The report states that the CIA employed [James D. Theberge](/people/james-d-theberge/) as a member of its Senior Review Panel from January 1986 to January 1988, that during much of that period he was a consultant to [Swissco Management Group](/organizations/swissco-management-group/), "a subsidiary of Cardoen Industries of Chile," and that he had been U.S. ambassador to [Nicaragua](/places/nicaragua/) in the 1970s and ambassador to Chile from 1982 to 1985.[^12]

The report continues: "Between 1984 and 1988, Cardoen Industries was of significant intelligence interest to CIA, which believed Cardoen was the primary supplier of cluster bombs to the Iraqi government, and an important supplier of other categories of ordnance to Iraq and other Middle Eastern states." It names [William J. Casey](/people/william-j-casey/), Deputy Director [John McMahon](/people/john-mcmahon/) and Executive Director James Taylor as the officials involved in Theberge's recruitment, states that there was no evidence that Gates took part in it, and records that Theberge disclosed the Swissco consulting and its Cardoen parentage in the personal history statement he submitted to the CIA in December 1985. It also states that Theberge served until his death in January 1988 and that the committee found no evidence the CIA identified or acted upon the potential conflict.[^12]

The report also states that "The Committee found no evidence that Mr. Theberge wittingly or unwittingly provided intelligence information to Carlos Cardoen or any other unauthorized person," and that the committee was "continuing to develop information about this matter."[^12] A Florida Division of Corporations record for document number H19133 shows a corporation filed August 31, 1984 as Swissco Investing, Inc., renamed Swissco Management Group, Inc. by amendment of October 3, 1984, and renamed Westfield Holdings, Inc. by amendment of October 5, 1990, administratively dissolved on October 11, 1991. Its Miami Lakes address dates from July 1, 1985, its officers are Augusto Giangrandi (president) and Jorge Ondarza (vice-secretary), and Giangrandi is also an officer, with Anthony Mijares Jr., of Swissco Leasing, Inc. and Swissco Yachting, Inc. at the same address. The Commerce Department order of September 11, 1995 names the convicted defendant Swissco Management Group, Inc. at 15485 Eagle Nest Lane, #210, Miami Lakes, the address the registry gives for the corporation from July 1, 1985. The registry records the same corporation as renamed Westfield Holdings, Inc. in October 1990.[^13] The Senate report describes the company as a subsidiary of Cardoen Industries.[^14]

In the same section the report records that [Richard H. Babayan](/people/richard-babayan/) had alleged that Gates sought to transfer cluster bomb technology to Cardoen, that Cardoen denied meeting the nominee in a letter of July 16, 1991 to the U.S. ambassador in Chile, and that the committee had been presented with no credible evidence to support the allegations after the [FBI](/organizations/federal-bureau-of-investigation/) and the CIA inspector general reviewed them. Swissco Management Group, Inc. was one of the eight defendants named in the 1993 indictment.[^2][^12]

Timmerman quotes a CIA statement of July 16, 1991 that "the CIA has never had a relationship of any type with Carlos Cardoen."[^3]

### Helicopter project and Moyle

Friedman also wrote that the British journalist [Jonathan Moyle](/people/jonathan-moyle/), who was inquiring into Cardoen's helicopter project, was found dead in a Santiago hotel on March 31, 1990.[^8]

### PROMIS software and the Ben-Menashe affidavit

The report of Special Counsel [Nicholas J. Bua](/people/nicholas-j-bua/) to the Attorney General (March 1993) records that [INSLAW](/organizations/inslaw/) submitted two affidavits by Ben-Menashe to the bankruptcy court, the first dated February 17, 1991, and that in the first Ben-Menashe claimed that in 1989, in Chile, he was told by Carlos Cardoen that Cardoen had brokered a sale of [PROMIS](/programs/promis/) by [Earl Brian](/people/earl-brian/) to a representative of Iraqi military intelligence. The report spells the name "Carduen" and states that Ben-Menashe made "a number of extraordinary claims, most of which are not subject to corroboration."[^15]

Among the newspaper clippings in the INSLAW folder of the Casolaro papers is a *St. Louis Post-Dispatch* report of February 19, 1991 on documents filed the day before in the bankruptcy litigation. It states that Ben-Menashe's affidavit said that in January 1989, while serving as a special consultant for intelligence affairs in the Israeli prime minister's office, he was told by Cardoen that Cardoen had brokered a deal between Brian and an Iraqi military intelligence representative for the use of PROMIS. The article reports that the sale was consummated in [Santiago](/places/santiago/), where Industrias Cardoen S.A. had its headquarters, and that "Until recently, Iraq was that company's biggest customer." In a separate item of the same report, Ben-Menashe is described as saying that one of his last assignments in 1989 was to try to stop Cardoen's company from selling chemical arms to Iraq, and that he failed.[^16]

The article reports Brian's answer. Brian called the allegations "nonsense," said he had never been to Santiago or [Tel Aviv](/places/tel-aviv/), did not know of Cardoen or Ben-Menashe, and had never heard of INSLAW or PROMIS before press accounts. The same article describes Brian's position that he had acquired the property rights to the software and sold it to Israel in 1987.[^16]

### The Miami indictment

On May 26, 1993, a federal grand jury in the Southern District of Florida returned a twenty-one count indictment. The court's order describes the charges as arising "from the exportation of zirconium and fuze components to Chile, which were allegedly destined for the manufacture of cluster bombs later sold to Iraq." The eight defendants were Carlos Cardoen, Franco Saffa, Jorge Burr, Industrias Cardoen Limitada (also called INCAR), Swissco Management Group, Edward A. Johnson, Ronald W. Griffin, and Teledyne Wah Chang Albany (Teledyne Industries, Inc.).[^2]

The court record places the indictment on May 26, 1993. A Ben-Menashe account places the charges in April 1992, filed by the United States Customs Service.[^2][^7] The court's order also records that the five defendants who had not appeared (Cardoen, Saffa, Burr, INCAR and Swissco) were not before the court, and that the court noted Cardoen's "present fugitive status."[^2]

The Commerce order states that on August 7, 1995 Swissco Management Group, Inc. was convicted in the same case on one count of exporting zirconium from the United States to Chile in violation of the terms of a U.S. Department of Commerce export license, among other crimes. The State Department's debarment notice of June 12, 1996 lists the conviction under 18 U.S.C. section 371 (conspiracy to violate 22 U.S.C. section 2778) in criminal docket 93-241-CR-Highsmith.[^13][^17] Justin Hibbard wrote in 2003 that Edward A. Johnson, sentenced on August 7, 1995, was "the only person convicted in the case."[^18]

Hibbard wrote that customs agents seized Swissco's helicopter at the Dallas airport on March 27, 1991 while investigating a shipment to Industrias Cardoen; that Swissco and Teledyne had shipped more than 130 tons of zirconium to the company in five years under license applications that said the material was for "mining operations"; and that on April 6, 1992 the Commerce Department and the Customs Service announced in Miami a civil suit against Swissco, through which the government sought to seize 30 million dollars in real estate bought with Iraqi payments.[^18]

On March 22, 1994, the court dismissed Counts II through VI against Teledyne on statute-of-limitations grounds. On April 25, 1994, it severed the ten zirconium counts from the eleven fuze-component counts. The zirconium counts were set for trial in February 1995, with Count I charging conspiracy under 18 U.S.C. section 371 against Cardoen, INCAR, Swissco, Johnson and Teledyne.[^2]

### Zirconium and Teledyne Wah Chang Albany

The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit described the export chain in its 1998 opinion in the case of Edward A. Johnson. Between 1983 and 1988 the Albany unit of Teledyne Wah Chang exported over 3.5 million dollars worth of zirconium to Chile. The court wrote: "The zirconium was sold to Carlos Cardoen, an international arms merchant based in that country. The zirconium was used as an incendiary agent in cluster bombs that Cardoen was selling to Iraq for use in the [Iran-Iraq war](/events/iran-iraq-war/)." The opinion adds that Cardoen supplied the exporter with false end-use statements describing the zirconium as a booster material in industrial explosives for the mining industry.[^19]

Johnson, a Teledyne sales manager, was convicted by a jury on four counts: criminal conspiracy, false statements, and two counts of exporting zirconium compacts under the Arms Export Control Act. The appeals court wrote that Johnson had visited Cardoen's cluster-bomb factory in Chile in 1987 and witnessed burn testing of zirconium compacts supplied for the MK 83 and MK 84 bombs. The court affirmed the verdict.[^19]

On January 26, 1995, according to a [State Department](/organizations/state-department/) notice published in the Federal Register, Teledyne Industries "entered a guilty plea to conspiring to violate and violating the AECA" in the Southern District of Florida, and on January 27, 1995 it entered a second guilty plea in the District of Columbia on a separate indictment concerning zirconium compacts exported to Greece for reexport to [Jordan](/places/jordan/). The notice describes the Florida indictment as charging an illegal export of "United States origin ordnance-grade zirconium to Chile, for use in cluster bombs and other munitions for Iraq."[^20]

On September 22, 1994 the Bureau of Export Administration published an order against [Augusto Giangrandi](/people/augusto-giangrandi/) (Augusto Giacomo Giangrandi Valenzuela, also known as Augusto Giangrandi), of Santiago, Chile. The order recites allegations that between February 14, 1983 and June 11, 1988 he conspired with Carlos Cardoen and others to export zirconium from the United States to Chile contrary to the terms of export licenses. Under a consent agreement the order denied him export privileges for ten years, the last five suspended.[^21]

### The CIA question in the trial record

Defendants Johnson and Griffin asserted four defenses before trial, among them CIA actual authority and the claim that Cardoen was an alleged agent of the United States government. The court held a hearing under the Classified Information Procedures Act in November 1994 (an order issued December 28, 1994 and reissued in unclassified form in 1995). Its order records that a witness identified as "Linda C." of the CIA Directorate of Operations, who had reviewed the agency file on Cardoen covering 1984 to 1993, testified that Cardoen "was not an agent or source of intelligence for the United States government; on the contrary, Cardoen was a target; that is, an individual of intelligence interest to the government."[^2]

The court also admitted into evidence the defendants' proffer of a portion of the Senate Executive Report on the Gates nomination, which the court quotes. The court wrote that the report "corroborates Witness Linda C.'s assessment" that Cardoen was a target of intelligence interest, and adopted her conclusion for purposes of the hearing, limited to whether the defendants had met their burden of showing the agent theory as a predicate for introducing classified information.[^2][^12]

The district court found no evidence supporting the theory that the CIA had secretly arranged to supply Cardoen with zirconium. The appeals court, after its own review of the classified materials, agreed that the government had not withheld evidence supporting that theory.[^19]

On January 31, 1995, Howard Teicher signed a declaration under penalty of perjury in case No. 93-241-CR, captioned for Judge Highsmith. It states that he was on the NSC staff from 1982 to 1987, that "the CIA authorized, approved and assisted Cardoen in the manufacture and sale of cluster bombs," and that CIA Director Casey directed the secretaries of State and Commerce on the necessary licenses. The declaration opens by stating that nothing in it is classified. [Robert Parry](/people/robert-parry/) reported that Teicher named Casey and his deputy Gates as having "authorized, approved and assisted" the delivery of cluster bombs to Iraq, that the defense attorney Gerald Houlihan angered prosecutors by publicly filing it, that the government sealed it as a state secret while attacking Teicher's credibility, and that Teicher was blocked from testifying and his statements kept from the jury on grounds of relevance. Consortium News added that a federal grand jury had begun hearing testimony on a related complaint over the submission of a defense affidavit.[^5][^22][^23]

The United States served a corrective declaration signed by Teicher on October 3, 1996, with a notice of filing served November 8, 1996. In it Teicher wrote that attorneys for Teledyne had prepared the January 31, 1995 declaration and faxed it to him; that he had not reviewed or indexed his National Security Council files since 1987; that his statements in paragraphs 15 through 18, which refer to what his files "will contain," reflected his best memory and belief and were not intended as "categorical statements of fact"; and that he has no actual knowledge that his files contain such information. He wrote that he is "not aware of any specific evidence that the United States government or any government official or agency took steps to help Cardoen obtain any U.S.-origin components for use in cluster bombs," and is not aware of specific evidence that any such official or agency helped Cardoen supply munitions to Iraq in any other way. As to paragraph 17, he wrote that although he understood Cardoen had been arrested, "the other information in this paragraph is incorrect." The corrective declaration does not address paragraphs 1 through 14 of the January text, including paragraph 14, which describes the supply of Cardoen's cluster bombs to Iraq as an "extension" of United States policy toward Iraq.[^6]

### Extradition, 2019 and 2020

The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists reports that the United States did not formally request extradition until March 2019, 26 years after the indictment, and that the Chilean Supreme Court rejected the request in March 2020 on the grounds that too many years had passed since the charges and that the alleged conduct had no equivalent offense under Chilean law. The same report quotes Cardoen as saying that he was made a scapegoat after Iraq invaded neighboring [Kuwait](/places/kuwait/).[^24]

A Chilean press report of August 24, 2020 gives a different account of the court action: the Second Chamber of the Supreme Court unanimously rejected the extradition on August 24, 2020, confirming a first rejection in March 2020 by the instructing minister Carlos Aranguiz, on the grounds of dual criminality and prescription. It reports that Cardoen's lawyers argued the company's activities were known and supported by the United States and that the United States had repeatedly said it would not pursue the case (translated from the Spanish).[^25]

### Casolaro papers

The sales sheet is one of five items in the "Promotional Material" folder, a single 21-page photographed PDF published on the Internet Archive. In the order of the photographs the items run as follows: the Cardoen sheet (two photographs, hand number PM-04), the printed fuel-air munitions page numbered 207 (two photographs, PM-02), the [Brunswick Corporation](/organizations/brunswick-corporation/) Rifleman's Assault Weapon cover sheet and a line drawing (two photographs, PM-03), the packet of the resumes of [Counter Terrorism Consultants, Inc.](/organizations/counter-terrorism-consultants-inc/) (eleven photographs, PM-05, fax headers June 20, 1990), and a four-page Inter-Probe energy transfer brochure (PM-01). One photograph of the Inter-Probe brochure shows the Cardoen sheet lying beneath it.[^1]

[^1]: Industrias CARDOEN, "Division Defensa," bilingual sales sheet, undated, hand-marked "BD|AI|PM-04," in "Promotional Material," Danny Casolaro papers, photographs published as casolaro-notebooks, Internet Archive, https://archive.org/download/casolaro-notebooks/PromotionalMaterial.pdf (PDF pages 1 and 2 of 21; the order of items checked against all 21 pages).
[^2]: *United States v. Cardoen*, 898 F. Supp. 1563 (S.D. Fla. 1995) (Highsmith, J.), reissued order on hearing under section 6 of the Classified Information Procedures Act, No. 93-241-CR, decided August 29, 1995 (original order December 28, 1994; hearing November 18 and 23, 1994), https://static.case.law/f-supp/898/cases/1563-01.json.
[^3]: Kenneth R. Timmerman, *The Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), pp. 166-170. Sole source for the passages so cited (1983 arrest and plea, Beydoun's 1984 offer, 1984 deliveries and earnings, the CIA statement of July 16, 1991).
[^4]: Kenneth R. Timmerman, *The Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), pp. 168-169. Sole source for the agreement; the quotation is Timmerman's quotation of Thomas L. Flannery.
[^5]: Declaration of Howard Teicher, executed January 31, 1995, *United States v. Cardoen*, No. 93-241-CR-HIGHSMITH (S.D. Fla.), paragraphs 14 to 18, as transcribed at http://spikethenews.blogspot.com/2016/01/the-teicher-affidavit.html (January 2016). The declaration was reported sealed in the court file.
[^6]: Declaration of Howard R. Teicher (corrective), *United States v. Carlos Cardoen et al.*, No. 93-241-CR-Highsmith (S.D. Fla.), dated October 3, 1996, with the United States' notice of filing served November 8, 1996, paragraphs 2 to 7, https://archive.org/details/utf-893cr-241-de-679. Addresses paragraphs 15 to 18 of the January 31, 1995 declaration.
[^7]: Ari Ben-Menashe, *Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network* (New York: TrineDay, 1992). Sole source for the passages so cited, including the 1979 SIBAT refusal, the 1985 Sanders contacts, the 1988 Chile visit and the April 1992 charge date.
[^8]: Alan Friedman, *Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq* (New York: Bantam, 1993), pp. 46-54, 64. Sole source for the Beydoun, Johnson and Moyle passages and the quoted White House statement.
[^9]: Rep. Henry B. Gonzalez, "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House of Representatives, January 21, 1993, p. H140 (reprinted article by William Tuohy and Douglas Frantz, "Three British Executives Cleared in Iraq Arms Sale Case"). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_cr/h930121-bnl.htm
[^10]: Rep. Henry B. Gonzalez, "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, January 21, 1993, immediately preceding the page marker H140 (an unattributed reprinted report on testimony in the Matrix Churchill trial). https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_cr/h930121-bnl.htm
[^11]: Rep. Henry B. Gonzalez, "Update on BNL Investigation," *Congressional Record*, House of Representatives, January 21, 1993, p. H132. https://irp.fas.org/congress/1993_cr/h930121-bnl.htm
[^12]: U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, *Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence*, S. Exec. Rept. 102-19, 102d Cong., 1st sess., October 24, 1991, section 5, "Allegations Relating to CIA's Relationship with Carlos Cardoen," https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/sites-default-filesations-10219.pdf (PDF pages 186 to 188).
[^13]: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Export Administration, "Action Affecting Export Privileges; Swissco Management Group, Inc.; Order Denying Permission To Apply for or Use Export Licenses," dated September 11, 1995, 60 Federal Register 48964-48965 (September 21, 1995), FR Doc. 95-23363, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1995-09-21/pdf/95-23363.pdf. Registry detail for H19133, https://search.sunbiz.org/Inquiry/CorporationSearch/SearchResults/EntityName/SWISSCO%20MANAGEMENT/Page1.
[^14]: Florida Department of State, Division of Corporations, entity name search "Swissco Management Group," document H19133, detail record and name history, https://search.sunbiz.org/Inquiry/CorporationSearch/ByName; officer search "Giangrandi Augusto," https://search.sunbiz.org/Inquiry/CorporationSearch/ByOfficerOrRegisteredAgent.
[^15]: Report of Special Counsel Nicholas J. Bua to the Attorney General of the United States regarding the allegations of INSLAW, Inc. (March 1993), pp. 73-74 (the affidavit of February 17, 1991).
[^16]: *St. Louis Post-Dispatch*, February 19, 1991, "Stolen Software Scattered: Affidavits Allege Sales To Iraqis And Israelis" and the sidebar "Colorful Characters, Prized Product Lend Spice To Case," clipping in the INSLAW folder of the Casolaro papers, https://archive.org/download/casolaro-notebooks/InslawIi_djvu.txt. Sole source for the affidavit's contents as reported there.
[^17]: Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Public Notice 2395, 61 Federal Register 29784-29785 (June 12, 1996), FR Doc. 96-14826, entry 3, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1996-06-12/pdf/96-14826.pdf.
[^18]: Justin Hibbard, "The Chilean Connection," *San Francisco Chronicle Magazine*, March 2, 2003, https://www.sfgate.com/magazine/article/THE-CHILEAN-CONNECTION-Carlos-Cardoen-arms-2667085.php. Sole source for the helicopter seizure, the 1992 civil suit and the statement that Johnson was the only person convicted.
[^19]: *United States v. Edward A. Johnson*, No. 95-5021 (11th Cir. Apr. 28, 1998) (published opinion, Tjoflat, Birch and Roney, JJ.), on appeal from No. 93-241-CR (S.D. Fla.), https://media.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/files/19955021.OPN.pdf.
[^20]: Department of State, Office of Defense Trade Controls, Public Notice 2206, "Rescission of Suspended Exports Regarding Teledyne Wah Chang Albany," 60 Fed. Reg. 30151 (June 7, 1995), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1995-06-07/pdf/95-13834.pdf; Public Notice 2207, 60 Fed. Reg. 30150, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1995-06-07/pdf/95-13835.pdf.
[^21]: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Export Administration, "Action Affecting Export Privileges; Augusto Giacomo Giangrandi Valenzuela, Also Known As Augusto Giangrandi," entered September 15, 1994, published September 22, 1994, FR Doc. 94-23471, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/1994/09/22/94-23471/action-affecting-export-privileges-augusto-giacomo-giangrandi-valenzuela-also-known-as-augusto.
[^22]: Robert Parry, "Iraqgate: Confession and Cover-up," *Extra!* (FAIR), 1995, as reposted at https://scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0212/S00074.htm.
[^23]: Consortium News, "Iraqgate Cover-Up Goes After Defense Lawyers," undated, https://consortiumnews.com/archive/story1.html. Sole source for the grand jury passage and for Houlihan's filing as reported.
[^24]: International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, "Most wanted Chilean arms dealer concealed ties to companies with help from Panama's offshore industry," September 2022, https://www.icij.org/inside-icij/2022/09/most-wanted-chilean-arms-dealer-concealed-ties-to-companies-with-help-from-panamas-offshore-industry/.
[^25]: "Suprema rechaza extradición Cardoen," Emol, August 24, 2020, https://www.emol.com/noticias/Nacional/2020/08/24/995884/Suprema-rechaza-extradicion-Cardoen.html.


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