Project MKUltra

Project MKUltra was a classified research and operational program of the CIA authorized on April 13, 1953, by Director Allen Dulles and directed by Sidney Gottlieb, chief of the agency's Technical Services Division. The program systematically administered LSD and other drugs, hypnosis, sensory deprivation, electroconvulsive therapy, and psychological coercion to human subjects who had not consented to the experiments - including psychiatric patients, prisoners, drug addicts, sex workers, military personnel, and ordinary members of the public. It ran across approximately 150 subprojects funded through cut-out foundations and direct institutional contracts, and it killed at least one CIA officer. Richard Helms ordered the destruction of nearly all MKULTRA records in December 1972-January 1973; approximately 20,000 surviving documents, discovered misfiled in a financial records annex during a 1977 FOIA search, form the primary documentary record of the program.¹

Predecessor Programs: Artichoke and Bluebird

MKULTRA's institutional origins lay in two earlier CIA programs. Project Bluebird, authorized in 1950, explored whether reliable amnesia could be induced in agents to protect operational secrets; whether foreign agents could be "reconditioned" through interrogation; and whether special interrogation techniques could be developed that would exceed ordinary resistance. Project Artichoke, which absorbed Bluebird in 1951, added LSD to the investigative toolkit and began experimenting with "special interrogation methods" - a bureaucratic phrase covering drug-assisted interrogation, hypnosis, and psychological disorientation - on actual subjects rather than theoretical planning.

Both programs reflected the CIA's reading of the Korean War prisoner-of-war experience, in which American POWs had signed confessions and made radio broadcasts that appeared to American officials to be the product of sophisticated "brainwashing" techniques. The actual mechanism of those confessions was primarily coercive interrogation under deprivation conditions rather than exotic pharmacology, but CIA analysts accepted the "brainwashing" interpretation and used it to justify a research mandate without ethical limits. MKULTRA was the formal consolidation and expansion of this research under Gottlieb's direction.¹

Authorization and Structure

Dulles authorized MKULTRA on April 13, 1953, on the basis of a proposal Gottlieb had drafted arguing that the Soviet Union and China possessed operational behavior-control capabilities that required a defensive American research program. The authorization was remarkable for its breadth: it explicitly waived the normal ethical review requirements and authorized research on unconsenting human subjects when Gottlieb deemed it operationally necessary.

The program was administered through the CIA's Technical Services Division with funding routed through two primary cut-out organizations: the Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology (a CIA front based in New York, renamed the Human Ecology Fund in 1961) and the Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation. Institutional recipients included universities, hospitals, prisons, and private research organizations whose principals may or may not have known the ultimate source of their funding. The cut-out structure was deliberate: it fragmented oversight, distributed the research so that no single investigator could reconstruct the program's scope, and maintained deniability between CIA funding and research outcomes.¹

MKDELTA, MKNAOMI, and the Operational Arm

MKULTRA was already under way before Dulles gave it structure. Under the code name MKDELTA, the Clandestine Services had set up procedures the year before to govern the field use of chemical and biological materials; MKDELTA became the operational arm to MKULTRA's research function, the framework for actually deploying substances (Gottlieb later described CBW field interrogations under MKDELTA using LSD and the stimulant Meratran without medical supervision). Also in 1952 the Technical Services Staff had agreed with the Special Operations Division of the Army's biological center at Fort Detrick that SOD would produce germ weapons for the CIA under the program MKNAOMI. Dulles approved an initial $300,000 for MKULTRA, exempt from normal financial controls, payable blindly on the signatures of Gottlieb and TSS chief Willis Gibbons.²

Subproject Structure and Key Institutions

The 149 surviving subprojects funded research at some 80 institutions, including 44 colleges and universities, using 185 private researchers, stabilized at roughly 20 percent of the Technical Services Division's annual research budget. Subproject 35 funneled money through Charles Geschickter's Geschickter Fund for Medical Research to build a research wing (the Gorman Annex) at Georgetown University Hospital with $375,000 in CIA construction funds, providing access to patients as subjects; Subproject 47 tested large LSD doses on volunteers at the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary through Emory University; Subproject 42 covered White's safehouse operations; and Subproject 58 covered James Moore's work at the University of Delaware on psilocybin and other natural psychedelics.²

Subprojects 134 and 137 and the New School

The New School Archives hold a file titled "Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 1977-1978" in the John R. Everett records, Box 7, Folder 29. Its description states that the folder "contains a report of two projects conducted at the New School in 1962 that received funding through MKUltra; the first attempted to discern relationships between body type and personality characteristics, and the second concerned graphology and psychopathologies." The description adds: "It appears that the researchers for at least one of these projects was unaware of CIA sponsorship." The correspondence concerns the release of "universities' involvement."³ The description gives no subproject numbers.

Two released subproject files match the two descriptions. Subproject 134 was a $22,000 project recommended in a memorandum of June 9, 1961, whose addressee and signatory are redacted. The memorandum recommends funding "despite the superficiality of the proposal and the questionable products which have issued from previous research," says that three redacted doctors "can strengthen the research accomplished through monitorship and close guidance," and says: "This work fits into our indirect assessment requirement and will contribute to the Wechsler-Bellevue work in which Dr." [redacted] "is engaging." The stated purpose was "exploratory research upon the relation of component physique (body typing) to patterns of personality characteristics." The proposal, a letter covering September 1, 1961 to August 31, 1962, describes a "constitutional psychology" study building on a pilot project that used Sheldon's somatotyping, and the author writes of "devoting my full attention to this project as soon as my present contract expires at the end of June." The attached pilot report describes fifty adult male Protestant theological students and ministers, photographed and somatotyped by Sheldon or his assistants, and tested on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and other measures. A reviewer's comments, signed Ph.D. and redacted, call the report "poorly organized," note "more variables (60 to 70) than subjects," and recommend "a larger number of subjects, better representative of the general population."⁴

A table of Human Ecology Fund grants for 1960 to 1963, compiled by the anthropologist David H. Price from the Fund's 1961-1963 report, lists "Physique and psychological functioning," investigator Frank Haronian, psychology, $39,000. A 1964 paper by A. A. Sugerman and Frank Haronian on body type is cited in later sport-psychology reviews. Haronian's grant is the only entry in the table whose title concerns physique. A draft memorandum for the record of May 29, 1961 says the investigator, who appears in it as "Mr." with the name redacted, "is neither cleared nor witting of true Sponsor," that the status page lists the contractor "as a grantee of the" redacted body, and that a redacted doctor will receive "additional data which will be useful in advancing his own research program (MKULTRA, Subproject 77)," the Wechsler-scale factor study.⁵⁶ Haronian's later publications are in pastoral psychology and religion and health journals.⁷ The 1964 paper by Sugerman and Haronian states that the study "was partly supported by a grant to Frank Haronian from the Human Ecology Fund."⁸ The investigator of Subproject 134 was Haronian.⁸⁹ The release redacts his name, and the Fund's table gives $39,000 where the file shows $22,000 initially.¹⁰

The subproject's status page records it as initiated in July 1961, at a cost of $22,000.00, with actual work expected to commence in September 1961.⁶ An invoice memorandum of July 12, 1961 asked that the check be forwarded by July 24, 1961, and said that additional funds were anticipated for the project.¹¹ A February 1963 accounting for the grant period from September 1, 1961 to August 31, 1962 records a receipt of $22,000.00 against Treasurer's Check No. 184788, dated August 11, 1961 (receipt signed August 16, 1961). Its expenditures include $10,800.00 for the "Salary of Principal Investigator" and total $18,827.50. The balance of $3,172.50 was to be applied to the next year's grant.¹² The revised proposal planned preparation from September to November 1961, testing and data collection from December 1961 to May 1962, and analysis from June to August 1962, with at least 100 subjects and possibly as many as 150; the budget's stipend line was $10,800.¹³

Frank Haronian received a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from the New School for Social Research in 1963; he had been a school psychologist in the Somerville, New Jersey, school district from 1950.¹⁴

Subproject 137 was a $2,000 project for a graphology lexicon. The memorandum for the record of August 24, 1961 states that its purpose was "to support the work of Dr." [redacted] "in completing a psycholexicon on handwriting," that she "has an international reputation for her work in graphology and speech," that "She is advanced in years and her health is failing," and that her manuscript was "now eighty percent complete." It states that the Technical Services Division "continues to approach the problem of handwriting identification and analysis in a number of ways" in support of its "general requirement to further the Agency's capability for the indirect assessment of personality," that the project "will be funded through the" [redacted] "for security and cover purposes," and that the investigator was "neither cleared nor witting of Agency sponsorship." The proposal states that "no compendium of terms exists for student or layman which deals with the history and evolution of handwriting, its psychology and psychopathology." A $2,000 treasurer's check dated September 11, 1961 was paid to a redacted institution. A memorandum of February 1963 states that the investigator "died in 1962 and did not send in an accounting," that her brother wrote that the manuscript was "almost finished," and that "The Fund will receive its usual acknowledgement in the publication of the manuscript." The accounting for the advance was approved on March 10, 1964 over the signature "Sidney Gottlieb, DC/TSD," and a certification states that the recipient "died in 1962 without rendering an accounting" and that "a manuscript has been published and value received."¹⁵

The curriculum vitae in the proposal (name redacted) lists the invention of a "Graphodyne" for measuring writing speed and pressure, a 1928 diploma, a 1948 research appointment at an institute of psychosomatic and psychiatric research "in conjunction with" an institute of psychoanalysis, and faculty membership from 1949. The graphologist Klara G. Roman (1881-1962) invented an instrument called the graphodyne, graduated in 1928, was called to Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago by Franz Alexander, and taught at the New School from 1948. Her posthumous Encyclopedia of the Written Word, published in 1968, thanks "The Handwriting Institute and The Human Ecology Fund," and the Fund's 1961-1963 report, as tabulated by Price, lists a $2,000 grant to "Roman, Klara G." The released CIA file does not name her.¹⁶

The copy of the two files that the CIA sent to the New School on September 7, 1977 carries red insertions of the school's name. On the draft memorandum dated May 29, 1961 for Subproject 134 (page image 134-12), the insertion reads "New School for Social Research" in the first paragraph, where the researcher appears only as "Mr." with the name blacked out.⁵ On the memorandum for the record dated August 24, 1961 for Subproject 137 (page image 137-10), the insertion reads "New School for Social Research, New York City" beside the blacked-out name of the investigator, who is referred to as "her" in the text.¹⁷ The cover letter of September 7, 1977, signed by A. R. Cinquegrana of the Office of General Counsel, states that "the name of the School has been reinserted wherever it appears in the original documents" and that the names of all other institutions, individuals and CIA employees remain deleted.⁹ The New School copy does not restore any individual's name. The Subproject 134 status page (New School copy PDF p. 10) shows the contractor and "grantee of the" fields still blacked out.⁶

John D. Marks writes that the Human Ecology grantees' Wechsler scores fed John Gittinger's assessment system: "At Gittinger's urging, other Human Ecology grantees gave the Wechsler battery to their experimental subjects and sent him the scores." He adds that the Society "wound up funding handwriting research and a publication in West Germany" and that Gittinger "went on to hire a resident graphologist." Marks writes: "In 1961 the Society changed its name to the Human Ecology Fund, but for convenience sake it will be called the Society throughout the book."¹⁸

Subproject 68: Ewen Cameron and the Allan Memorial Institute

The most internationally significant MKULTRA subproject was the collaboration with Dr. D. Ewen Cameron, chairman of the Department of Psychiatry at McGill University in Montreal and director of the Allan Memorial Institute. Cameron was the sitting president of the American Psychiatric Association in 1953 - the most prominent psychiatrist in North America.

Cameron's theory was "psychic driving": that psychiatric patients could be therapeutically remolded by first erasing existing behavioral patterns ("depatterning") and then implanting new ones through repeated auditory suggestion. Gottlieb funded Cameron's research under Subproject 68 beginning in 1957 through the Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology.

Cameron's depatterning protocol included:

• Drug-induced sleep lasting from 15 to 65 continuous days, maintained by barbiturates and other sedatives
• Electroconvulsive therapy administered at voltages 20 to 40 times the normal therapeutic dose, sometimes several times daily
• LSD and other psychotropic drugs administered throughout the sleep period
• Isolation from external stimulation
• Extended auditory input of repeated phrases (the "psychic driving" element)

The Allan Memorial patients subjected to these protocols had sought treatment for conditions including depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. None was informed that their treatment was experimental or that the CIA was funding it. Many emerged with severe retrograde amnesia, cognitive impairment, and psychological damage exceeding their pre-admission conditions. Some were permanently disabled; several required long-term institutional care.

Cameron died in 1967 before the program's public disclosure. A class action suit by nine Canadian victims settled with the CIA in 1988 for $750,000. The Canadian government subsequently paid C$100,000 to approximately 80 identified patients under a 1994 compensation program. The total number of patients subjected to Cameron's experimental protocols is estimated at several hundred.¹

Operation Midnight Climax

Operation Midnight Climax was MKULTRA's operational LSD testing program, run by George Hunter White, a Federal Bureau of Narcotics agent working under CIA contract. White established safe houses in San Francisco (initially on Telegraph Hill; subsequently at 225 Chestnut Street in the Fillmore District) and New York City beginning approximately 1955.

White recruited prostitutes to bring men to the safe houses. The men - drawn from populations unlikely to file credible complaints - were served drinks spiked with LSD. CIA observers watched through one-way mirrors, recording behavioral responses for Gottlieb's files. The operational theory was that LSD's effects as an interrogation adjunct should be tested in conditions approximating actual field use rather than controlled laboratory settings.

Midnight Climax ran for approximately eight years before White's retirement in 1963 ended the San Francisco operation. White's personal diaries, discovered by journalist John Marks during FOIA research, described the operation with enthusiasm. The program administered LSD to an unknown number of men who were never informed of the experiment and never consented to it. Some were given doses that produced lasting psychological effects.¹⁹

Frank Olson

On November 18-19, 1953 - seven months after MKULTRA's formal authorization - Gottlieb convened a Technical Services Staff retreat at a cabin at Deep Creek Lake, Maryland. After two days of meetings, Gottlieb spiked the after-dinner Cointreau with LSD without informing the attendees. Among those dosed was Frank Olson, a CIA bacteriologist who worked on biological weapons at Fort Detrick, Maryland.

Olson experienced a severe adverse reaction. In the nine days following the retreat he exhibited paranoid ideation, disturbed sleep, and acute psychological distress. CIA supervisors arranged for him to see a New York psychiatrist. On the night of November 28-29, 1953, Olson fell from a tenth-floor window of the Hotel Statler in New York City, through a window shade and a closed glass pane. He died on impact. The death was ruled a suicide.

Director Dulles was briefed on the circumstances. The CIA paid Olson's family $750,000 in a private settlement and secured their silence. The program was concealed.

When the MKULTRA documents surfaced in 1977, Olson's family learned for the first time that he had been non-consensually dosed with LSD nine days before his death. In 1994, Olson's son Eric arranged an exhumation; forensic pathologist James Starrs found cranial injuries inconsistent with the fall, suggesting Olson had been struck before going through the window. The New York County District Attorney opened a homicide investigation; it was never prosecuted due to insufficient surviving evidence. The question of whether Olson was murdered - and if so by whom - remained unresolved at Gottlieb's death in 1999.²⁰

Additional Fatalities: Blauer and Hoch

Beyond Olson, other deaths traced to the program. Harold Blauer, a professional tennis player, died in 1953 after being injected with the psychedelic MDA during Army-contracted experiments at the New York State Psychiatric Institute, the drug supplied by the Army Chemical Corps in cooperation with MKULTRA; one researcher later admitted "we didn't know if it was dog piss or what it was we were giving to him." Dr. Paul Hoch, a CIA consultant, gave psychiatric patients intraspinal injections of LSD and mescaline and then lobotomized them, in one case asking a subject under a local anesthetic to describe his visual experiences as surgeons removed pieces of his brain.²¹

Military and Prison Subjects

Outside the black program safe houses and Canadian institutions, MKULTRA ran extensive experiments through more conventional institutional channels. The U.S. Army administered LSD to soldiers at Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland under a parallel program; some of these subjects subsequently testified to lasting psychological damage. Federal prisoners at the Addiction Research Center in Lexington, Kentucky, and the California Medical Facility at Vacaville were administered LSD in extended dosing protocols, some lasting weeks, by CIA-contracted researchers.

Gottlieb's own assessment - reflected in program memoranda - was that LSD did not produce reliable behavioral control in laboratory conditions. The substance's effects were too variable across subjects, too dependent on set and setting, and too difficult to calibrate to produce consistent interrogation results. By the early 1960s the program's LSD research was producing diminishing returns. Gottlieb shifted focus toward other behavioral modification techniques and toward the operational support functions of TSD - disguise, documents, communications equipment, and assassination materials.¹

The 1963 Inspector General Report

In the summer of 1963 Inspector General John Earman discovered the safehouse operations during a routine inspection and filed a 48-page Top Secret report dated July 26, 1963, noting that the program had run 144 separate projects over a decade, 25 still active. He found that "research in the manipulation of human behavior is considered by many authorities in medicine and related fields to be professionally unethical" and warned that public disclosure "could induce serious adverse reaction in U.S. public opinion." Earman documented the standing arrangement with the Federal Bureau of Narcotics ($10,000 a year per safehouse city for "cultivation of targets"), recorded that test subjects had been made ill "for hours or days, including hospitalization in at least one case," and warned that "files are notably incomplete ... A substantial portion of the MKULTRA record appears to rest in the memories of the principal officers." Director John McCone suspended unwitting testing pending review, but Helms wrote at least three memos urging its resumption.²

Records Destruction and Surviving Documents

In December 1972-January 1973, facing expanding Watergate-related congressional investigations and his own retirement, Gottlieb ordered the destruction of essentially all MKULTRA records. The destruction was carried out with the knowledge of DCI Richard Helms, who was simultaneously ordering the destruction of Operation CHAOS operational records. File boxes from TSD facilities across the country were collected and destroyed.

The destruction eliminated the core operational files: individual subject records, experimental protocols, correspondence, and the bulk of the institutional funding records. The intention was to eliminate any documentary record before congressional subpoenas could reach the material.

A partial record survived accidentally. Approximately 20,000 documents - primarily budget requests, financial accountings, and administrative correspondence - had been routed to a TSD financial records annex rather than the main operational files and were overlooked in the destruction. When journalist John Marks filed a Freedom of Information Act request in 1977, an archivist located the misfiled documents. The CIA produced them; they provided sufficient evidence for the 1977 Senate Health Subcommittee hearings and for Marks's subsequent book The Search for the Manchurian Candidate (1979) - still the primary investigative account of the program.

Gottlieb testified before the Church Committee in 1975 and the Senate Health Subcommittee on August 3, 1977. He confirmed the program's existence, the records destruction, and the safe house operations. He defended the program as a reasonable response to a genuine Cold War threat and expressed carefully qualified regret for individual outcomes while declining to characterize the overall program as wrong.¹⁹

1977 Notifications to Institutions

Director of Central Intelligence Stansfield Turner wrote to Senator Daniel K. Inouye on August 2, 1977 that the recovered material identified "185 non-government researchers and assistants" and "80 institutions where work was done or with which these people were affiliated."²² He listed the institutions as 44 colleges or universities, 15 research foundations or chemical or pharmaceutical companies and the like, 12 hospitals or clinics, and 3 penal institutions. He gave "all of the names on a classified basis" to the Senate committee and wrote that he had "a legal obligation under the Privacy Act not to publicly disclose the names of the individual researchers without their consent."²² He also wrote that he was "working closely with the Attorney General and with the Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare on this matter."²²

General Counsel Anthony A. Lapham wrote to each notified institution in August 1977. The letter stated that "Your institution is included among the institutions at which some portion of this CIA-sponsored research appears to have been performed or with which one or more individuals performing some aspect of this research were affiliated." It quoted the Director's statement that "this Agency does not intend to reveal to the public the identities of any institutions that knowingly or unknowingly were involved in MKULTRA activities, or the names of individual researchers."²³ On November 7, 1977, Lapham asked whether each institution had made its correspondence public, and wrote that "Where an institution has itself made public these relationships, there would seem to be little point in our continued refusal to confirm these facts."²⁴ On March 17, 1978, Assistant General Counsel Cinquegrana wrote that institutions not responding by April 15, 1978 would be presumed to want their identities protected.²⁴

The New York Times reported on October 9, 1977 that the Senate Health Subcommittee had invited the presidents of 20 institutions to testify on September 20 and 21, and that only one accepted, without a scheduled appearance because the others declined.²⁵

Lawsuits and Settlements

MKULTRA generated litigation in multiple jurisdictions:

• The family of Frank Olson settled with the CIA in 1994 for $750,000, following the family's public disclosure that they had received a private settlement decades earlier.
• Nine Canadian MKULTRA victims settled with the CIA in 1988 for $750,000.
• The Canadian government compensated approximately 80 identified Allan Memorial victims at C$100,000 each in 1994.
• Numerous American subjects and their families attempted litigation; most were dismissed on statutes of limitations, state secrets grounds, or failure to identify defendants with sufficient specificity given the records destruction.