Office of Strategic Services

The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the United States wartime intelligence and covert operations agency established by a Military Order of June 13, 1942 that redesignated the Coordinator of Information's office and placed it under the Joint Chiefs of Staff, under the direction of General William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan, whom the order appointed Director of Strategic Services. It replaced the earlier Coordinator of Information (COI) office established July 11, 1941, and the order revoked the order of July 11, 1941.¹ The OSS coordinated intelligence gathering, ran covert operations behind enemy lines, conducted psychological warfare, and analyzed foreign intelligence. President Truman dissolved it by Executive Order 9621 on September 20, 1945, effective October 1, 1945.² Much of its personnel, methodology, and organizational culture transferred directly into the Central Intelligence Agency, created by the National Security Act of 1947.³

Figures like Oliver J. Caldwell were former OSS officers who later became involved in intelligence activities related to psychic research, illustrating the continuity of personnel and interests across successive intelligence organizations.⁴

Creation and British Influence

The OSS was created substantially at the initiative of British Security Coordination (BSC) director William Stephenson, who persuaded President Roosevelt to task Donovan with drafting the organizational blueprint. Donovan's July 1941 report to Roosevelt, which directly led to the COI and then the OSS, was shaped by his meetings with Stephenson and British Special Operations Executive (SOE) representatives. BSC trained the first OSS agents at Camp X in Ontario, Canada, and provided organizational templates drawn from SOE methodology. Donovan described BSC as "the greatest integrated secret intelligence and operations organization that has ever existed anywhere" and explicitly modeled OSS's structure on British precedents. Roald Dahl was among those who served simultaneously in BSC's Washington influence network and later compiled the official BSC history (1945).³

The foreign information activities of the Coordinator of Information were moved to the Office of War Information by Executive Order 9182 of June 13, 1942, and the military order excluded them from the new agency. The military order also refers to the order of July 11, 1941 that had established the Coordinator's office.¹ The Morale Operations Field Manual of January 26, 1943 listed OWI, with the State Department, the Foreign Economic Administration, the Treasury Department and the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, among the agencies that might give Morale Operations "considerable support in the execution of plans," particularly in neutral countries.⁵

Charles Howard "Dick" Ellis (1895-1975), BSC's deputy director under Stephenson, headed BSC's Washington office from 1941 and was central to OSS training and structural development. Ellis's post-war career became controversial when allegations emerged that he had made admissions during MI5/MI6 internal interrogations in the 1960s about pre-war links to German intelligence; historians remain divided on whether these admissions were accurate or coerced. He died in 1975, before the public allegations surfaced.³

Operations

OSS operations ran through several branches: Research and Analysis (intelligence analysis, drawing on academics recruited from major universities), Secret Intelligence (HUMINT collection), Special Operations (sabotage and partisan warfare support), Morale Operations (psychological warfare), and X-2 (counterintelligence). OSS deployed operatives throughout occupied Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Notable operations included support for resistance movements in France, Italy, Yugoslavia, and Norway.

Allen Dulles directed OSS operations in Switzerland from November 1942 through the war's end, developing a European intelligence network that became the foundation for the CIA's clandestine service. He subsequently became CIA Director from 1953 to 1961.³

The agency drew heavily on the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service for monitored Japanese broadcasts. In September 1941 Breckinridge Long wrote to FCC chairman James L. Fly that the service "has a counterpart in the organization of which Mr. Donovan is the head," and assumed that the information was "made instantly available to some of his people" in the William J. Donovan organization.⁶ On August 13, 1942 Dr. Charles B. Fah, acting chief of the Far Eastern Section, wrote to FBIS director Robert D. Leigh that the section "has found the various reports of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service of the Federal Communications Commission indispensable in our work."⁶ On November 16, 1942 William L. Langer, director of the Research and Analysis Branch, wrote to Leigh that "Without the monitoring service of the Federal Communications Commission, our knowledge of current events in Japan would be meager."⁷ After the 1944 budget cut, Langer wrote on April 22, 1944 that recent developments had "led to a curtailment of the output of the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service."⁸ On January 17, 1945 Geroid T. Robinson of the agency wrote to Charles S. Hyneman to express regret that the service's analytical work had been discontinued, and added that he hoped the Daily Report would carry more Soviet radio material.⁹

The Truth Drug Program

The OSS established a "truth drug" committee under Dr. Winfred Overholser, head of St. Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, which tried and rejected mescaline, several barbiturates, and scopolamine before settling in spring 1943 on cannabis indica as the most promising substance. Testing ran in cooperation with the Manhattan Project, which supplied the first dozen subjects; oral delivery failed and the committee found cigarettes the most effective vehicle. George White, an Army captain who had come to OSS from the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, conducted the first field test on New York gangster August Del Gracio on May 27, 1943, then tested the technique on suspected Communist soldiers at camps outside Atlanta, Memphis, and New Orleans. The program seeded the CIA's postwar ARTICHOKE and MKULTRA work, which began by getting the old OSS files out and approaching the same George White.¹⁰

Weapons and Behavioral Science

Stanley Lovell, a Boston industrialist and self-described "saucepan chemist," headed OSS Research and Development through Division 19 of James Conant's National Defense Research Committee, producing devices such as the "Aunt Jemima" explosive disguised as pancake mix and the "Who? Me?" harassment substance, and pursuing several schemes to assassinate Adolf Hitler. Donovan also commissioned a psychoanalytic study of Hitler from psychoanalyst Walter Langer, who predicted his suicide, and brought in Harvard psychologist Henry Murray to build an OSS recruit-assessment system in only fifteen days, a milestone as the first systematic American effort to evaluate personality to predict future behavior.¹⁰

Dissolution and CIA Transition

Truman dissolved the OSS on October 1, 1945, distributing its functions to the State Department (Research and Analysis) and the War Department (Strategic Services Unit, which preserved the clandestine service infrastructure). Executive Order 9621 transferred the Research and Analysis Branch and the Presentation Branch to an Interim Research and Intelligence Service in the Department of State, which was abolished at the close of business on December 31, 1945.² The Central Intelligence Agency was created by the National Security Act of 1947, signed July 26, 1947, and formally established September 18, 1947. The institutional culture Donovan developed - including the use of academic, journalistic, and cultural figures as intelligence assets; the cultivation of foreign service networks; and the use of proprietary companies as operational covers - became standard CIA practice after the transition.³

Foreign Nationalities Branch Reporting on Italian Anti-Fascists

The Foreign Nationalities Branch reported on the Mazzini Society and its rivals. Foreign Nationalities Branch memorandum No. 111 of March 6, 1943, summarized in a Secretariat memorandum of March 27, 1943 to William J. Donovan, described "considerable confusion" among liberal and socialist Italian and Spanish anti-Fascists in the United States.¹¹ The memorandum states that the Mazzini Society "has been shaken by a series of internal disputes and crises and is much weakened by the resultant confusion" and "still maintains itself as the leading non-party, liberal anti-fascist organization," and that ex-members who were formerly important in its leadership were drifting toward the Communist-led Alleanza Garibaldi, centered in Mexico City.¹¹ It also describes the Italian leadership and the Spanish Acción Republicana as occupied, after the August 1942 Montevideo conference, with strengthening intergroup unity, "combat legions" and national committees.¹¹

Emigre Scholars

The Office of Strategic Services considered the New School for Social Research "the best collection of German, left-leaning intellectuals in the United States." Over two hundred students who had studied at the school's University in Exile worked for the government during the war, and New School scholars were involved in more than twenty-five government-associated projects routed through Rockefeller Foundation intermediaries.¹²